Fig. 4

Climate risks and their cause–effect relationships across different sectors, adapted from Yokohata et al. (2019b). Arrow thickness represents number of risk interconnections. Arrows connecting different sectors indicate intersectoral causal relationships, and those looping back to the same sector represent causal links within each sector. Node size reflects number of risks identified within the sector. Node color indicates the proportion of intersector causes (orange), effects (blue), and intrasector causes and effects (gray). Oval with a red dashed line shows the range covered by Earth system models, as reviewed here. Ovals with blue and green dashed lines show the ranges covered by integrated assessment models and dedicated models in the field of impact assessment, respectively, illustrating the complementarity of the diverse models used in environmental science